Judaism in Israel:

Contemporary Jewish symbols shown in Holy, Cultural, and Historical Sights

1. -2. Western Wall/Wailing Wall/Kotel: This is a sacred place for the Jewish people. The wall is the piece of the outer wall of the Temple that was not destroyed. People visit the wall to pray to God and to put their prayers, written on scraps of paper, into the cracks of the wall. I included two pictures to show that the wall is divided by a screen (a side for men and a side for women). The orthodox Jews pray this way in temple and therefore the wall is set up this way as well. The Western Wall is symbolic in that is it all that is left of the Temple and therefore making it a very holy place to pray at.

3. Sign for King David’s Tomb: The Hebrew words on the sign show the language of the Jewish people. Also, the colors white and blue are symbolic for Judaism. The art decorating the border of the sign has Stars of David, which is the main symbol for Judaism. King David is important to the Judaism in that during his reign became the formation of a Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem (where his tomb is).

4. Prayer: The photograph shows a woman praying at the tomb of King David. She is covering her head (wearing a hat), which shows respect while in a temple or place where prayer or service is happening. Usually a male will wear a kippah to cover his head, which is a symbol seen in dress within a synagogue or in daily life for conservative and orthodox Jews, and woman will also wear a head covering (sometimes made of lace).

5.Mount Herzl Cemetery: The cemetery is the resting place for Israel Defense Force soldiers, prime ministers, presidents and other officials. The photograph shown is that of soldiers’ graves. On the headstones are small rocks which a traditional marking at Jewish cemeteries. When Jews visit the deceased, they put stones on the graves to leave a visible indication that the person has not been forgotten.

6. Theodore Herzl: He was a Zionist leader, referred as the father of the Zionist movement, in the late 1800s. “Zionism is the international political movement that originally supported the reestablishment of a homeland for the Jewish People in Palestine. The area was the JewishBiblical homeland, called the Land of Israel. Since the creation of Israel, the Zionist movement continues primarily as support for the modern state of Israel.” (Wikipedia- Herzl) He believed the Jews should form their own state, especially due to the large amounts of anti Semitism in Europe at the time. Herzl was a leader for the creation of the Jewish state and still today is a symbolic leader for preserving the state, even in difficult times.

7. Yad Vashem is the Holocaust memorial to the Jewish victims. Yad Vashem includes the Holocaust History Museum, various memorial sites, art, a synagogue, archives, a library, and an educational center. The Holocaust and Holocaust remembrance is very important to many Jews and this memorial is a sign of remembrance and respect to those who lived through the terrible oppression and to those who helped the Jews. The Holocaust in itself has become a symbol for the Jewish people because of the baggage it has and how widely effected Jews were. Today, Jewish people still feel connected to the Holocaust because of relatives that were directly affected and because in the history of religion, it is a fairly recent event that drastic affected a large amount of Jewish people.

8. Bagels: This type of bread is links with the Jews and is commonly eaten with cream cheese and lox. The history of the bagel does in fact have a connection to Judaism: “There was a tradition among many observant Jewish families to make bagels on Saturday evenings at the conclusion of the Sabbath. Due to Jewish Sabbath restrictions, they were not permitted to cook during the period of the Sabbath and, compared with other types of bread, bagels could be baked very quickly as soon as it ended.” (Wikipedia- Bagels). Today, the reason for bagels to be made and consumed by Jews is not the same, but there is still a symbolic connection.

9. Israeli Flag: The white flag has two blue strips and a blue Star of David in the center. The colors and the Star of David are all symbols of Judaism. The flag was actually designed after the Tallit, which is the prayer shawl worn during services in temple (another symbol seen in the way Jews dress).

10. Old Temple: This photography shows a miniature recreation/model of the Herod’s Temple, which was an expansion of the Temple in Jerusalem and the city around it (or what is may have looked like). People believe that the Temple was located on the current site of the Dome of the Rock. The Temple is an important symbol in Judaism because it is very present in the Jewish bible, where the Temple is said to be the center of ancient Judaism, and “According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple (or the Temple Mount) acts as the figurative "footstool" of God's presence in the physical world.” (Wikipedia- Temples in Jerusalem).

Baha'i Video/Website

The temple in Chicago seems very impressive and I feel bad that I have never visited it, especially since I live in the Chicago-land area.

But, some parts of the video and website bothered me. Like in our discussion in class, I felt that the Bahai say they are incorporating "all" the religions of the world, but that those who follow the other religions have strayed from the correct path and Baha'ullah is the prophet to follow now. Similar to the chart in our book on Baha'ullah, a graphic in the video shows different religious prophets from Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, etc, around a sun ( as if they are the rays of the sun). According the video, all these religions had prophets that are delivering the same message, just at different points in history and Baha'ullah is the most recent and up to date prophet doing so. In the video, his name is larger than all the names and as they fade away, his name is still present, showing his importance. All religions feel that their way is the right way but I feel that the Baha'i faith take it a step further with including the prophets of other religions but then saying those followers are wrong.

The video states "Bahai's recognize the unity of all religions" but this isn't really true; if they did, they wouldn't think other religions were wrong from believing that their stories and prophets are the correct ones to follow. There is so much stress on unity in this video that it starts to become overwhelming and almost cliche.

Also, the website seems more like advertising for people to come to visit rather than a place of worship. I do realize that the Baha'i Temple is a landmark, but on the homepage of the temple, the things that stuck out to me were " There is no admission fee", which makes it seem like a tourist attraction and the section on media coverage. Also, on the right side there is a list of links and the first one is "visitors information." I may be over analyzing this because the temple is the only one on the continent so many people would be visiting it, but the website seems focused on recruiting visitors and making itself known to the outside rather than services, its already committed Baha'i followers, etc.

Garden at Baha'i Temple

In class on Wednesday, I mentioned that when I visited the Bahai temple in Haifa, Israel, visitors were not allowed to walk through the entire garden. There was a certain fence that we were allowed to go up to (and not past), and could only look down the slope (the temple is at the bottom of a big hill and the gardens are above it) into the rest of the gardens rather than walking through the many paths. I knew this restriction was not always in place because my mom had been to this temple years before and was able to walk through the entire garden. I didn't have a good answer in class of why this restriction was in place, besides "vandalism" which I vaguely remember hearing when I was there. I think there was also a security check point before we were able to go into the little section of garden/ viewing area (but security check points are all over Israel so that wasn't out of the norm).

I wanted a better answer than just "vandalism"- and I think I found one. An article,"Haifa's Baha'i temple - a tempting target for Hizbullah?" from JPost, or The Jerusalem Post, from July 21 2006, states that: "Fear of missiles has forced the Bahais to close their beautiful gardens in Haifa to visitors. "We don't want to risk the lives of our gardeners, our guides and, of course, our visitors."

But that is just a small quote and small point from an article on a very serious topic. The article talks about the violence against the Baha'i caused by Shi'ite Muslims. This shows that the persecution that occurred to Baha'ullah and other Bahais in the early days of the religion is still going on today. A quote from the article describes the hatred for the Bahais:

' "Shi'ites consider a Baha'i an apostate who can be killed for nothing," said Lincoln (secretary general of Baha'i international community). "There are 350,000 Baha'i in Iran. They are excluded from higher education, including the last year of high school. If a Baha'i is killed in a traffic accident he is ineligible for compensation, because a Baha'i's life is worthless." Members of the Baha'i community have been persecuted, and sometimes killed over the years by Muslims, especially by Shi'ites.'

Although there is hostility towards the Baha'i, members of the faith still view life with optimism, as the article states and from the information I gathered from Baha'u'llah's biography. Lincoln states in the article that:

" Baha'i believe in the basic unity of all peoples and that the world is heading toward more oneness and the disintegration of borders and prejudices. But this unity and peace will not float down from the sky in a magical way. It has to take root in the hearts and conscience of people," he said".

JPost Homepage

Terraces of Baha'i Faith/ Hanging Gardens of Haifa

Bahai

A picture I took of the Bahai temple in Haifa, Israel when I visited this past summer (famous for its amazing gardens).

A new religion comes about when a person, such as Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad the Bab, makes a change in an already established religion or puts forth a new belief system. Bab "dared to put forward religious claims" basically saying that, "he was the Gate to the Hidden Imam, the Messianic figure that all of Iran's Shi'i Muslims were expecting" (pg 11). This caused a lot of stirring among Iranians and people either opposed him (such as religious leaders and authority figures) or joined the new religion, like Baha'u'llah. 

One element that goes into founding a new religion such as Bahai, is having a leader who creates the ideas that cause the new thoughts or change in thought. Bab and then Baha were these leaders for the Bahai faith. Other elements in founding a religion and its process include: followers (otherwise the religion will die out quickly), good reasons for the change or creation of the religion, and most likely persecution of the followers. The reason I included the last point (persecution of the followers) is not because a religion couldn't occur without this aspect, but because most religions in history have experienced it. The Bahais were persecuted (jailed, tortured, killed) because that was how the Iranian government decided to deal with a group of people who broke from the norm and developed their own religion. I think persecution is part of the process of many religions before they are fully accepted, which also shows that the founding/creation of a religion is usually a long and painful process. It is also interesting to note that the persecution to the Bahais was committed by the religion that they originally came from, Islam. 

The Baha'i Faith international website

Baha'i Faith US website

texts of Bahai

The Rude Boys

A part of the reading that really stuck out to me was the information on "the rude boys." The book states that " the most disturbing phenomenon of this period, from the perspective of the status quo, was the emergence of the rude boys. As White points out, the term covers a wide range of individuals, 'from the anarchic and revolution minded youth of the poorer classes to the young political 'goons,' ... and Rasta-spawned 'cultural' rude boys who rejected the aping of white standards and continued existence of 'white bias.'"The rude boys "united in their attitude of defiance and posture of toughness" (pg 109). In uniting, music was created. The lyrics of rock steady songs, which is like ska but slower and with more bass and drums, spoke about the rude boys. The lyrics usually were in celebration of the "rude boy" attitude towards the world.

In doing some research on the rude boys, I first went to wikipedia, which states that "The first rude boys in the 1960s were associated with the poorer sections of Kingston, Jamaica, where ska, then rocksteady were the most popular forms of music. They dressed in the latest fashions at dancehalls and on the streets. Many of these rude boys started wearing sharp suits, thin ties, and pork pie or Trilby hats; inspired by United States gangster movies, jazz musicians and soul music artists. In that time period, disaffected unemployed Jamaican youths sometimes found temporary employment from sound system operators to disrupt competitors' dances (leading to the term dancehall crasher). This — and other street violence — became an integral part of the rude boy lifestyle, and gave rise to a culture of political gang violence in Jamaica. As the Jamaican diaspora grew in the United Kingdom during the 1960s, rude boy music and fashion, as well as the gang mentality, became a strong influence on the skinhead subculture.^"

^{The way of dress described here is interesting and very different from the Rastafarian dress, along with their influences ( US vs. Africa) The rude boys are interested in what is new, cool, and Western ( US, rather than African) while the Rastas are into their past and roots from Africa/Ethiopia. Both groups were protesting but in different way. The great part about both groups protests were that they involved music ( but the rude boys used violence as well). The rude boys seem to be disliked by the overall population in Jamaica because of their attitudes and how they acted. At first the Rastafarians were not liked nor tolerated by the government/establishments in Jamaica but that definitely changed over time- I don't think the same is true for the rude boys. I think they stand apart from the Rastafarians mainly because they tried to stir up trouble and use violence to solve their problems.}

Rastafari in Jamaica

             Rasta vs. Boboshanti

The version of Rastafari life shown in the video is different than what I expected after seeing the faith through Marley and his music. The sect of Rastafari shown in the video, the Boboshanti, are very conservative and strict in their rituals (traditional). They wake early every morning(3 am, then 9 am) and pray many times a day, along with getting work done (physically) to survive, such as taking care of fields, building homes, dealing with water, etc.

The video presents the Boboshanti as hard workers and spiritual people at the same time. The view of Bob Marley, his music, and the overall view of Rastafari people (that I had before watching this video) is definitely one of great spirituality, but not a huge emphasis on hard work nor such care in the details of the rituals. 

The system of symbols reflected in the video include the turban, or crown, that they wear over their dreads. Unlike the Rastafari that we see in popular culture, such as Bob Marley, the look of the Boboshanti does not include dreads. The way the Boboshanti dress is not as colorful and wild as the less tradition/popularized Rastafari; in the video, they are wearing solid bright colors (Red, green) or neutrals (black, tan, white).  The colors of Rasta were present in the video; the flag of black, red and green is seen and the houses are painted black, red, and gold. There was one symbol that we had not read in the book yet; a big "R"  in red on the chest of the men. Signs with the 'Bible's teachings' and the group's ideals are around the community. these values are the same as what we have read about as the overall view of Rastafarians (examples: black over white, good over evil, equality and justice for all). 

Overall, seeing this video make me realize that there is a real depth to the religion of Rastafari and varying degrees of the faith as well (just like in Christianity or Judaism). I enjoyed learning about the Boboshanti because they are more traditional and didn't look like the popularized, Bob Marley-like Rastafarian (not that there's anything wrong with that)!

Operation Solomon

After talking about and watching the videos in class about Operation Solomon , I wanted to learn more about it. Operation Solomon took place in 1991. It occurred when Jewish organizations were concerned with the well being of the Ethiopian Jews, who are also known as Beta Israel. The reason for concern was the political unrest from rebel attacks. The time for the airlift also worked out well because the Mengistu regime, the power who once controlled Ethiopia and was now losing it, had made immigrating to Israel difficult for the Ethiopian Jews. Because the Mengistu was losing their power, the Israel Defense Force could do the airlift. There were 34 planes transporting 14,325 Ethiopian Jews in 36 hours. Two other airlifts involving Ethiopian Jews before this one: Operation Moses and Operation Joshua, both involving rescuing Ethiopian Jews from famine in Sudan.

Maybe being Jewish and feeling about Israel as a religious 'homeland,' puts me at a different perspective, but I feel that these operations/ rescue missions were very important and possibly necessary to the lives of the Ethiopian Jews who were involved. In class, it was mentioned that there is a negative cultural effect on Ethiopia because they no longer have their Jewish population. While having a diverse cultural, especially when a group has been in a specific part of the world for centuries is important, the well being, life, and happiness is much more important. Saying that for cultural reasons, the Ethiopian Jews should not have been taken to Israel via Operation Solomon does not make sense to me. They were obvious not treated well by those in control at the time ( example- not allowed to immigrate to Israel if they wished= not free to go to their Jewish homeland) and by providing the airlift, the IDF was giving the Ethiopian Jews a chance to come "home" during a time of unrest. I think Israel provided a incredible gift to these people and should not be viewed as taking, forcing, or causing harm with Operation Solomon.

Also, in Israel, there are many different cultural and ethnic groups; obviously it would be hard to move from one country to another, as the Ethiopian Jews did, but I think Israel is one place that wouldn't be quite so bad. So many religions believe it to be where their origins are (and therefore people of many beliefs) and there are many immigrants who live in Israel.

Links:

New York Times Article on the Airlift

Beta Israel Info

Religion in Ethiopia

Kebra Negast

In reading Kebra Negast, I realized the Ethiopian religion is rich and complex, which would also lead to a long lasting and involved culture. "The country of Ethiopia" ( a phrase mentioned several times) establishes that the setting in Ethiopia is an important factor. Because this story is so tied to Ethiopia, I think it gives them a sense of national pride but the fact that it is a religious story adds another dimension. Religion is what ties the people of Ethiopia together, a sort of common ground- although we did learn in class that there are Christians,Jews, and Muslims all calling this country home. Because that confused me, I looked up on wikipedia (!) who exactly Kebra Negast would be bringing together (because of religious beliefs). Kebra Negast "is considered by many Ethiopian Christians and Rastafarians to be an inspired and reliable account." (link to more info here) 

When reading the section of the Ethiopian book, Kebra Negast, I kept seeing the similarities between it and the bible ( both Jewish and Christian).  This story gives a special significance to Ethiopia because it is an important story/explanation to many different religious groups. It also gives Ethiopia a sense of great historical and religious importance because the country is present in the events that religions consider crucial. 

some interesting links:

Rastafari online- Kebra Negast

Queen of Sheba

Religion in Ethiopia

An Ethiopian orthodox church

a Nun, a Rabbi, Ali G, a Priest,etc....

A funny Ali G video where he asks a panel of different people (with different religious beliefs) about religion.

Blending/ Metaphors

Throughout the Bible and the Psalms there are metaphors that are created through blending. A point that Fauconnier made in the article as that not only does this blending occur, but we don't usually realize its happening, just like the computer interface example with the mouse and then the arrow on the screen. when we talked about the psalms in class, we focused on the metaphors we didn't understand and how they related to history. What about metaphors that seem so simple or obvious we don't even realize they are there?

When reading about the examples in the article ( skiing, sailing, etc) I tried to apply it to big picture ideas of religion.

1. God is a metaphor.

2. Religion is completely blended and all/most? religions are blended.

3. Humans created religion because they need metaphors to explain the world around them.

4. Nothing, including religion, would be possible without blending.

Fauconnier writes that partial mapping " are mappings from one mental space to another ...(and) the possibility of building cross space mapping is .. made salient only by our own cognitive system and experience in the world"(pg 278). Our religious ideas and the religions themselves are possible because we create them in our minds. Religions and aspects in them are metaphors for things in the real world.

Information on Conceptual blending.

Information on the author, Gilles Fauconnier.

Intention

" The greatest care must therefore be taken to determine whether the expression that we are trying to understand is literal or figurative." ( Pg 85)

Quoted from On Christian Teachings, Augustine makes clear here and throughout Book 3 that there is ambiguity in the bible and we need to decipher the form of the expression before we can actually figure out what is being stated. If we do not realize that something is in fact a sign or a metaphor for something else, that is a problem. As Augustine states, " someone who attends to and worships a things which is meaningful but remains unaware  of its meaning is a slave to a sign" along with " the person who does not understand what a sign means, but at least understands that it is a sign, is not in fact subjected to slavery" (pg 74-75).  Overall, Augustine thinks, and rightfully so, that we need to know when a sign is actually being used because they are used so much in the bible. 

I think that this can relate to religious knowledge, on a larger level. Just as we should realize when a sign or metaphor is being used in the bible or Psalms, we (one who studies these texts and/or use them as part of their religion) also should be aware of the meaning of the overall texts. I do think it is important to adapt a modern outlook because things obviously change over time, but it is also crucial to understand the " intention of the writer through whom the Holy Spirit produced the part of the scripture" (87).  I think this relates to the historical outlook we used for discussion on the Psalms. If we didn't think about and learn how the texts were created and meant to be read, and just made up opinions and stories of our own to go along with the words, that wouldn't be very meaningful. History adds a level of  authenticity to the texts. The scriptures have certain meanings but can be read in other way that maybe produce different meanings. I don't think it is wrong to believe in anything you want to, but it is important to realize what meaning was initially intended. 

On Christian Teaching

In Book 2 of On Christian Teaching, Augustine explains how to read the Psalms and therefore how to understand them. He first talks about signs: "for a sign is a thing which of itself makes other things come to mind" ( pg 30). There are two types of signs, natural and given- problems arise with the given signs are in the form of obscure words and phrasing, which we definitely encountered in the Psalms. Theses ambiguities/ obscurities only occur, Augustine believes, because of the translation in language and " to correct any Latin manuscripts, Greek ones should be used" (pg 42). His explanation of signs and how the obscurities occur could be used to interpret the Psalms since there are many signs ( in the form of metaphors, for example) and many confusing passages that even Alter doesn't have figured out.

Later on in book 2, Augustine seems to go much more into a Christian direction and really shares his religious beliefs but in a way that seems he thinks they are the absolute truth. This is not helpful in interpreting the Psalms in an open way. (maybe it works well for a Christian studying the Psalms as their religious book- but not as a book to learn about religion and how it work just as how we are doing in class). Also, Augustine believes that non- Christian, or pagan writings are untrue when they are not glorifying God. I may be off on this, but it seems that Augustine is denouncing science as truth because he does so with the study of astronomy. Since those writing about science would not be including God in the reason/theory/creation of those thoughts, Augustine did not approve. He does not want those who read his book to concern themselves with ideas that don't fall in place with Christian beliefs and he states" do not venture without due care into any branches of learning which are pursued outside the church of Christ.... keep away too from the unnecessary and self indulgent institutions of mankind" ( pg 63).

I don't think that these ideas(in the paragraph above) are helpful for interpreting the scripture because they are too one-sided, but his information on signs, translations, and how to go about actually learning the text are helpful. Even though Augustine states that we need to watch out for problems in translations which can lead to obscurities in the text, I think we also need to watch out for Augustine and his very strong views.

Please, No More Matzo!

Passover ended a week ago today and there is still matzo sitting out at Downer.

No observing Jew would still be eating matzo now after eating it for the week of passover ( but then how many observing Jews are at Lawrence? and how many kept passover?) Last year when Downer did this ( yes, they did this last year and probably every year) I was sort of offended but didn't say anything to the Downer ladies. I told my mom about it and how it bothered me, but she didn't seem upset- she said they probably just wanted to get rid of it and hopefully people would eat it if it was sitting out to take. This answer didn't really change my opinion especially when its happening again this year.

Now for my rant:

Its not that matzo is some sacred religious thing that needs to be taken special care of- its more just the principal of it. When Passover it over, its not like I want any more of that, and it proves the point that while Downer is trying to seem conscious of religious practices, they don't really get it. Maybe its still sitting out because they don't know when Passover ended?

Also, I went to the Seder that Lawrence had at Lucy and sat with some people who thought they knew more about the religion than they really did. Its okay to not know information, but to act like you do isn't. And if one does want to be knowledgeable, learn!

On a side note, the matzo Downer has taste horrible ( which I know I shouldn't complain about because at least they have/had it), but then what else is new?.. its Downer.

Psalm 18

In Psalm 18, God is intimidating and seems violent. The images of fire and smoke, usually linked to hell, are associated with God in this poem. It states:" for smoke rose from His nostrils and fire from His mouth consumed, coals blazed up around Him." God has taken on a different role in this psalm than in other ones- here he is very much meant to be feared by all, while in others, he is a helper, healer, and forgiver.

There are a lot of nature images and metaphors in the Psalms but in this one, it seems nature is being used in a different way. Through his affect on nature, God is putting fear into people such as, " lightning bolt shot", "channels of water were exposed and the world's foundations laid bare", and " the earth heaved and shuddered." Nature also fears God. While God has created both nature and humans, he also has the power to destroy, which is the fear he is instilling. He has so much power and is now showing how he can use it (which seems negative).

The Psalm is affective because it is not saying that God will hurt all, but that he will harshly punish those who are the "enemies" ( those who the speaker of the psalm refers to as the opposition- wrongdoers, those who are faithless, etc). The speaker will be given a "shield of rescue" but " the God who grants vengeance to me and crushes people[the enemies] beneath me"- God will not come to the rescue of the enemies and therefore those who read this psalm will not want to be included in the "enemies."

I do think the image of God in Psalm 18 is alarming but that helps in its purpose- to convince those who read it to follow the rules set out by God and to fear his power by doing good and being faithful.

Also, I don't think it is problematic that elements of this God have been borrowed from other religious traditions. It only furthers the importance in the religion because it has connections to other religions and more depth. When religions are tied, the people in those groups may have similar beliefs and hopefully can get along rather than have tension and anger.

Sheol vs. Purgatory

Both Sheol and Purgatory seem like a waiting room where your final fate is unknown; really this isn't the case. Two very basic definitions provided by yourdictionary.com:

Sheol: a place in the depths of the earth conceived of as the dwelling of the dead

Purgatory: any state or place of temporary punishment, expiation, or remorse

From these definitions, these words don't seem to have any religions connotations; in fact, what makes their definitions is from the religious beliefs of those who believe in these places-Sheol and Purgatory.

In the Jewish religion, Sheol is the resting place for the dead whether or not one has been a bad or a good person. Jews believe that rewards and punishments will be given to people in this world, not the afterlife( basic beliefs of Judaism can be found here ). Psalm 37 talks about how the evil doer will be punished and that the Lord will reward those that do good. In relation to the Old Testament, this is punishment and rewards in the present life, not the next one.

Since the Psalms are also part of the Christian bible, where heaven, hell, and purgatory have a place, the words of Psalm 37 may be read in a different way (meaning those rewards and punishments can relate to where someone will spend eternity).

I did some research ( aka wikipedia) and from my understanding, purgatory is where people go who are not quite accepted into heaven but could be once they undergo a purification process, which is painful and involves a cleansing fire. It seems like one would want to get in and out of Purgatory fairly quickly to then move onto heaven, whereas Sheol is not a transition place, but rather The place. But, I can see why purgatory and Sheol may seem similar - they both have a sort of neutral quality to them.

It doesn't seem that in today's society the average person daily thinks about and is concerned with their afterlife ( maybe I'm wrong...?), like how it seems those who wrote the Psalms where. Obviously times have changed but basic human instinct/emotions/ inner thought probably has not. Many it has to do with people becoming less and less involved in religion which then translates over into thinking less about "life" after life, because that is more spiritual than scientific.

Psalm II

Psalm II written in the "Bay Psalm Book", the earliest book printed in America, is the same psalm as the one in "The Book of Psalms" but there are many differences between the two. Psalm II in the "Bay Psalm Book" was translated by two early Americans, Richard Mather and John Eliot (wikipedia.com), and therefore portrays how early Americans felt about the Psalms and their life/current situations at the time. 

The most noticeable change in this psalm is the language/writing style which is in old English. Also, the phrasing is different which has a substantial effect on the feel of the poem. I think that this version of Psalm II is more conducive to group participation which was probably very popular with early Americans in their newly established communities. The psalm feels more poem-like than the version of psalm II in "The Book of Psalms"  would maybe make it easier to recite together. 

Also, in this version Psalm II, there is a warning, but it seems more of a warning to the Kings and Princes (that the early Americans have just left or escaped from in their different European homeland countries). The Psalm is warning the monarchs to watch out for what the Lord will do to them and also what these early Americans will do back to the kings. " Let us asuner break their bands, their cords bee from us throwne" is in this version and not in quotes in the text, meaning it is being said by the Americans, whereas in " The Book of Psalms" version, the Kings and Princes say " Let us tear off their fetters, let us fling away their bonds!" In that version, that statement is in quotes meaning the monarchs said it ( but this is also just an interpretation of Robert Alter, the translator). I do think this all holds some significance because the early Americans did not include quotes for a reason- they wanted to be the ones to state those words again the kings that use to control them. 

Another warning to the kings is later on in the Psalm: " And now yee Kings bewise, be learn'd yee Judges of th'earth/ Serve yee lord with reverence, rejoyce in him with feare." I feel that overall this version is more of a warning of the Lord's power to the Kings that the early Americans just left but are still being controlled by (early European colonies) rather than the people. 

Mississippi civilization

The early Native American civilizations of the Mississippi were quite developed. The one that interests me the most was Aztalan, which was a famous Mississippian site in Wisconsin.

Aztalan was huge for its time- 15 acres. It was enclosed by walls and had watchtowers which show that this civilization was trying to keep others out and/or keep its people in. This is very significant because it shows that there were various groups in the same general vicinity that would be competing with each other. Also, there may have been ethnic or religious tensions.

In Aztalan, there was a large enough population for food storage and agriculture to be necessary. Many people living in the same place required a system to be created to manage the food production and distribution. These people were not just hunters and gathers but possibly farmers and traders to get the food they need to survive. Also, the evidence from the site shows that religion was very important to the people of Aztalan. Burials have been found in the area, with one especially important one called the " princess" burial- a young woman buried with belts of beads wrapped around her. This is significant because " In historic times, the Mississippians of the southeastern US traced family descent through the female line, and women appear to have had much social power" (159) which is very different from the European, (and many other cultures), idea of male dominant societies.

Overall, the society of Aztalan was very complex especially for its time, much more than I believe people originally thought(especially since the idea of Native Americans being " savages" was such common thought).

In the end, the tragedy is that Aztalan "evaporated" (162). If it had survived longer, would we have more information today or even a continuation of what the people of Aztalan started?

System of Symbols

Geertz's definition of religion: A system of symbols which acts to est. powerful, pervasive, and long lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.

The effigy mounds in WI are a religious symbol for the Ho-Chunk (who created them).

The mounds were sometimes created in the shape of humans or animals and sometimes contained human burials. It is important to note that the mounds were in the shape of animals because different animals/images had important meanings to Native Americans. "Bird imagery, representing the upper-world in cosmology of Native Americans, carries through to the modern day, appearing in such forms as thunder birds" ( page 83). Bird symbols represented the upper-world and the lower-world was shown with symbols of bears (earth)and water spirits (water).

In " Indian Mounds of Wisconsin," Mallam states that " most effigy mounds fall into three classes corresponding to the three natural realms- air, earth, and water...because of this, he theorized that mounds had been built to symbolize and ritually maintain balance and harmony with the natural world" (page 113). The religion of the Native Americans at this time was all about their connection with the natural world and the resources it provided- therefore, it only makes sense that the mounds they built to bury the dead were natural images so that the people buried in the mounds would still be connected to nature even after their life on earth.

The book states (118) the the Ho Chunk are divided into three groups headed by the thunderbird, bear, and water spirit which is important because not only does it define the parts of the natural world, but it is also the most common types of effigy mounds. The effigy mounds very much reflect the system of symbols set up by the Ho- Chunk not only for their religion, but for their entire way of life.

The Shaft of Dead Man

Although most of our discussion was on the elements of religion and then how they relate to the Ur- religion, the cave drawing of the "Shaft of Dead Man" really stuck out in my mind from the class.

The scene of the painting at the back of Chamber of Engraving at the Cave of Lascaux plays out like this...

A detailed picture of a bison with spears through him and his intestines hanging out.... next to a simply drawn man (who may be a Shaman) with a bird shaped head and a beak for a mouth.. who was probably holding a stick with a bird on top of it that resembles the man's held (but that stick now lies next to the man, maybe after the struggle with the bison)... and nearby is a rhino who is also drawn in detail.

I find it very interesting that the animals ( except for the bird) are drawn in detail when the human is not. Maybe there is less care and respect for man than there is for animals at this time because of all that animals provide. The bird and the man look similar in the drawing (both with single lines making up their drawings) and maybe represent each other.

This piece of art seems to be telling a story of a specific event, more so than the other cave drawings we have seen from the Cave of Lascaux.

I wonder why humans aren't drawn in more pictures, just how a shaman is in this one; if religion is so important, wouldn't more pictures of shamans be present?

Also, since animals are revered, why was a bison shown in such a defeated state?

Palaeolithic art & religion/ Cave Tour

The Primary element of religion: God.

I know the word 'God' does not show up in the article, "Palaeolithic art and religion", at all, nor do all religions have a 'God' in the western religion sense and religions can have more than one 'God' as well. The definition of God that I am using is "a being of supernatural powers or attributes, believed in and worshiped by a people" (dictionary.com). From my knowledge, experiences, and from reading the article, I believe that with this definition of 'God,' it is safe to say that all religions have a 'God' and therefore it is the primary element.

Much of the article discusses the connection between the art created and religion (which is obvious due to the title), but there is more beneath. The people of Upper Palaeolithic Europe didn't just create art to create art. It was an integral part of their culture and life because it corresponded to their religion. And because of this, "Religion was not a 'free floating' optional extra to society; it was embedded in the social fabric" ( "Palaeolithic art and religion"). I feel that today religion is an optional extra in our society, which is not wrong but also not ideal. Having a unifying religion can be a positive aspect, not because I want everyone to join whatever religion I am in, but because it has a "glueing" effect. Just like art and religion were connected and probably many other aspects of the Upper Palesolithic European society, the connection of important parts in society/life make those aspects even more significant than they already are. One example of this keeps popping up in my mind and although it doesn't relate to the article, it still has some relevance.

In Cuba, music ( conga or bata drumming along with dancing and singing) is very related to religion ( although there is definitely popular music in Cuba). Because the music is connected and necessary to the religion ( songs are religious, dancing can bring out the deities, etc), it brings a greater importance to the music. When there are connections between many different aspects of people's lives because of religion, 'God' or the spiritual being(s) has a very significant impact.

As I said before, 'God' is the primary element of religion. Although 'God' is not mentioned in the article, references to spiritual beliefs are; "belief in a supernatural world to which the dead go can be safely assumed for the Upper Palaeolithic" which is very similar to many religions ( having a heaven vs hell idea). The authors of the article eventually come to the conclusion that this region of people were shamanistic. A shaman connects people to the supernatural world and therefore to 'God.' Overall, all the art that the people were creating was in order to bring them closer to a spiritual being.